Plant reproductive stage shapes bird–plant interactions in urban residential landscapes of Jos, Nigeria

Abstract

Urban vegetation supports bird communities by providing food resources, shelter, and perching sites. However, how plant reproductive stages influence bird visitation patterns in African urban environments remains poorly understood. This study examined bird–plant interactions in residential areas of Jos, North-central Nigeria, focusing on the influence of plant species identity and reproductive stage on visitation frequency and behavior. Field observations were conducted at 40 systematic point count locations across Jos North and Jos South metropolitan areas. Bird–plant interactions feeding, perching, and nesting were recorded on selected urban plants. A total of 171 interaction records were documented involving 50 bird species and 18 plant species. Urban-adapted generalist species, particularly village weavers, doves, sunbirds, and sparrows, accounted for most interactions. Visitation frequency varied significantly among plant species; Tithonia diversifolia, Borassus aethiopum, and Elaeis guineensis recorded the highest levels. Generalized linear models with overdispersion assessment showed that flowering plants received significantly higher visitation frequencies than fruiting or non-reproductive plants. Feeding interactions were predominantly associated with flowering and fruiting plants, while perching occurred across all reproductive stages. These findings indicate that plant reproductive stage shapes bird visitation patterns in urban residential landscapes. Retaining and incorporating flowering and fruit-bearing species within urban green spaces may support bird habitat use and ecological interactions in rapidly urbanizing tropical cities.